Interspecific insect relationships on Terminalia argentea (Myrtales: Combretaceae) trees in the Cerrado biome.

Terminalia argentea Mart. (Combretaceae), native to Brazil, is used in habitat restoration programs. Arthropods are bioindicators because their populations reflect changes in the environment. We evaluated the recovery of a degraded area by using ecological indices and analyzing arthropod interactions on T. argentea plants. The richness and diversity of sap-sucking Hemiptera and the abundance of tending ants and Sternorrhyncha predators increased with the number of T. argentea leaves. The correlation of the abundance of tending ants and Sternorrhyncha predators was positive with that of the sap-sucking Hemiptera, and the abundance of Sternorrhyncha predators was negative with that of tending ants and sap-sucking Hemiptera. The positive correlation between the abundance, richness, and diversity of insect groups and numbers of T. argentea leaves is an example of the bottom-up regulation mechanism, with the population dynamics of the lower trophic levels dictating those of higher trophic levels. The contribution of T. argentea, a host plant of many arthropods, to the recovery of ecological relationships between organisms in degraded ecosystems is important.

Evaluation of cold storage techniques to improve mass rearing of Cleruchoides noackae from Thaumastocoris peregrinus eggs.

The egg parasitoid Cleruchoides noackae Lin & Huber, 2007 (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) is originated from Australia and the main biological control agent of Thaumastocoris peregrinus Carpenter & Dellapé, 2006 (Hemiptera: Thaumastocoridae) on Eucalyptus L'Hér (Myrtaceae). Companies that grow Eucalyptus are in need of a mass rearing protocol to increase the number of individuals produced and improve the quality of this parasitoid. The aim of this study was to define a protocol for mass rearing C. noackae in T. peregrinus eggs, based in the evaluations of the key biological attributes of this parasitoid in the parental and F1 generations, after the cold storage of the parasitised host eggs. Two methods were tested as C. noackae rearing protocols. In the first, parasitised eggs of T. peregrinus by C. noackae were cold stored for 7 days after being left in a climatic chamber at 24 ± 2°C, 60 ± 10% RH and a photoperiod of 12:12 (light:dark) h (standard environmental conditions) for 3, 6, 9 or 12 days. In the second, T. peregrinus eggs parasitised by C. noackae were maintained in a climatic chamber under standard environmental conditions for 6 days, after which these eggs were cold-stored for 0 (control), 7, 14 or 21 days. Parasitism (%), and the development period (parasitism to adult) and female proportion (%) of C. noackae were evaluated. Based on the results (parental generation: parasitism, around 45%; F1 generation: parasitism, around 55%; development period, around 16 days; female proportion, around 60%), eggs should be stored at 5°C on the sixth day after parasitism by C. noackae and maintained at this temperature for 7 days. The cold storage of T. peregrinus eggs, after parasitism, can be included in the mass rearing protocols of the parasitoid C. noackae.

Insecticidal and Repellent Activities of Four Essential Oils Against Sitophilus zeamais (Coleoptera: Curculionidae).

Objective: This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of Corymbia citriodora, Melaleuca alternifolia (Myrtaceae), Mentha × piperita (Lamiaceae), and Schinus terebinthifolius (Anacardiaceae) essential oils as an alternative to manage Sitophilus zeamais (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) adults. Methods: Acute contact toxicity, acute toxicity on treated maize grain, fumigation toxicity, repellency bioassays, and GC-MS analysis of the essential oils were carried out. Results: Corymbia citriodora, M. alternifolia, M. × piperita, and S. terebinthifolius oils were toxic at different levels to S. zeamais through residual contact, ingestion and via fumigation, and were also repellent to adults of this pest. Melaleuca alternifolia oil was the most active in contact (LC50 = 18.98 µL.mL-1), ingestion (LC50 = 1.03 µL.g-1), and fumigant (LC50 = 20.05 µL.L-1 air) bioassays. Citronelal (53.6% in C. citriodora), terpinen-4-ol (46.9% in M. alternifolia), menthol (44.8% in M. × piperita), and ß-caryophyllene (16.2% in S terebinthifolius) are the major constituents of these oils. Conclusions: Melaleuca alternifolia and M. × piperita essential oils can be used by residual contact, while those of C. citriodora, M. alternifolia, and M. × piperita by mixing with maize grains. Melaleuca alternifolia essential oil can be used as a fumigant, while those of C. citriodora and S. terebinthifolius as repellents for S. zeamais adults.

The survival, development, and reproduction of Gonipterus platensis (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) on the main Eucalyptus (Myrtaceae) genotypes planted in Brazil.

Background: Gonipterus platensis Marelli (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) is the main defoliating beetle of Eucalyptus L'Hér. (Myrtaceae) plants worldwide. The suitability of Eucalyptus to this pest varies among host plant genotypes. The objective of this study was to evaluate the development, reproduction, and survival of G. platensis on Eucalyptus species and hybrids to assess their suitability to this insect pest in Brazil. Methods: The survival, development, and reproduction parameters were evaluated with G. platensis feeding leaves of Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh., Eucalyptus grandis W. Hill., Eucalyptus urophylla S.T. Blake and on the hybrids of E. grandis ×E. urophylla 'H13' and 'VR3748' in the laboratory. Results: The duration of the larval stage of G. platensis was shorter on E. urophylla. The pupal stage and the period from larva to adult were equally shorter on E. urophylla and E. camaldulensis. The viability of instars of this insect was low on both E. grandis and E. camaldulensis. The complete lifespan, oviposition period and reproduction parameters of G. platensis were greater on E. urophylla, lower on E. camaldulensis and E. grandis, and intermediate on both hybrids tested. Synthesis: Eucalyptus urophylla is the most suitable host for G. platensis survival, development, and reproduction, while E. grandis and E. camaldulensis are the least suitable.

Seed germination and early seedling survival of the invasive species Prosopis juliflora (Fabaceae) depend on habitat and seed dispersal mode in the Caatinga dry forest.

BACKGROUND: Biological invasion is one of the main threats to tropical biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Prosopis juliflora (Sw) DC. (Fabales: Fabaceae: Caesalpinioideae) was introduced in the Caatinga dry forest of Northeast Brazil at early 1940s and successfully spread across the region. As other invasive species, it may benefit from the soils and seed dispersal by livestock. Here we examine how seed dispersal ecology and soil conditions collectively affect seed germination, early seedling performance and consequently the P. juliflora invasive potential. METHODS: Seed germination, early seedling survival, life expectancy and soil attributes were examined in 10 plots located across three habitats (flooding plain, alluvial terrace and plateau) into a human-modified landscape of the Caatinga dry forest (a total of 12,000 seeds). Seeds were exposed to four seed dispersal methods: deposition on the soil surface, burial in the soil, passed through cattle (Boss taurus) digestive tracts and mixed with cattle manure and passed through mule (Equus africanus asinus × Equus ferus caballus) digestive tracts and mixed with mule manure. Seeds and seedlings were monitored through a year and their performance examined with expectancy tables. RESULTS: Soils differed among habitats, particularly its nutrient availability, texture and water with finely-textured and more fertile soils in the flooding plain. Total seed germination was relatively low (14.5%), with the highest score among seeds buried in the flooding plain (47.4 ± 25.3%). Seed dispersal by cattle and mule also positively impacted seed germination. Early seedling survival rate of P. juliflora was dramatically reduced with few seedlings still alive elapsed a year. Survival rate was highest in the first 30 days and declined between 30 and 60 days with stabilization at 70 days after germination in all seed treatments and habitats. However, survival and life expectancy were higher in the flooding plain at 75 days and lower in the plateau. Prosopis juliflora seedling survival and life expectancy were higher in the case seeds were mixed with cattle manure. SYNTHESIS: Prosopis juliflora seeds and seedlings are sensitive to water stress and habitat desiccation. Therefore, they benefit from the humid soils often present across human-disturbed flooding plains. This plant also benefits from seed deposition/dispersal by livestock in these landscapes, since cattle manure represents a nutrient-rich and humid substrate for both seeds and seedlings. The quality of the seed dispersal service varies among livestock species, but this key mutualism between exotic species is due to the arillate, hard-coated and palatable seeds. Prosopis juliflora traits allow this species to take multiple benefits from human presence and thus operating as a human commensal.

Selectivity of the botanical compounds to the pollinators Apis mellifera and Trigona hyalinata (Hymenoptera: Apidae).

The toxicity of essential oils that can be used in insect pest management to pollinators needs further studies. Apis mellifera Linnaeus and Trigona hyalinata (Lepeletier) (Hymenoptera: Apidae) foragers were exposed by three pathways to ginger, mint, oregano and thyme essential oils to provide their LC50, LD50 and LC90, LD90. Oregano and thyme were more toxic through contact and topically for A. mellifera while the toxicity of mint and ginger was lower. Trigona hyalinata was more tolerant to the essential oils than A. mellifera. In the walking test, the area was treated (totally or partially) with sub-doses (LC50) obtained via contact. The area fully treated with oregano reduced the distance traveled and the movement speed increased the number of stops by A. mellifera. Similar results were observed for T. hyalinata with oregano and thyme oils. Apis mellifera showed irritability remaining shorter time in the area partially treated with ginger, mint and thyme essential oils while T. hyalinata had similar behavior with ginger and thyme. Essential oils did not repel A. mellifera or T. hyalinata, but those of ginger, mint and thyme reduced the time spent by A. mellifera in areas treated with sublethal doses. Oregano and thyme essential oils reduced the survival, mainly, of A. mellifera, while ginger and mint were selective for both pollinators.

Histopathological and cytotoxic changes induced by spinosad on midgut cells of the non-target predator Podisus nigrispinus Dallas (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae).

Broad-spectrum insecticides used in pest control are a risk for non-target insects. Their compatibility to the insecticide spinosad, used in agriculture and forestry as a biological control tool, needs to be evaluated. Podisus nigrispinus Dallas (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) is a predatory bug used in the pest management of agricultural and forest systems where spinosad is also frequently applied. The aim of this study was to evaluate the toxicity, histopathology and cytotoxicity in midgut cells of P. nigrispinus exposed to spinosad. The toxicity test was performed to determine the lethal concentrations of spinosad after exposure by ingestion. The histopathology and cytotoxicity caused by spinosad were analyzed in the three midgut regions (anterior, middle and posterior) of P. nigrispinus during different exposure periods. Spinosad, at low concentrations, was toxic to P. nigrispinus [LC50 = 3.15 (3.02-3.26) µg.L-1]. Cell degeneration features such as cytoplasm vacuolization, chromatin condensation and release of cell fragments to the midgut lumen were observed in this organ. Cell death via apoptosis was found in the three midgut regions of this predator after exposure to the insecticide. Spinosad is toxic to P. nigrispinus, and causes histological and cytological damage followed by cell death in the midgut, suggesting a dangerous effect on a beneficial non-target insect.

Chlorantraniliprole degenerates microvilli goblet cells of the Anticarsia gemmatalis (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) midgut.

Anticarsia gemmatalis Hübner (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is mainly controlled with synthetic insecticides such as chlorantraniliprole. However, these compounds may affect non-target organs of insect metabolism. The objective of this study was to evaluate the toxic effect in the midgut goblet cells of A. gemmatalis caterpillars exposed to chlorantraniliprole. The midgut of these caterpillars, which ingested the insecticide in medium-lethal dose (LD50), was dissected and evaluated by transmission electron microscopy. The goblet cells microvilli, after exposure to the insecticide, were disorganized and degenerated. This can compromise ionic homeostasis and nutrient absorption, impair physiological mechanisms of detoxification, and reduce the movement of food boluses throughout the insect midgut.

Brassica nigra and Curcuma longa Compounds Affecting Interactions Between Spodoptera exigua and Its Natural Enemies Cotesia flavipes and Podisus maculiventris.

The interaction Spodoptera exigua Hübner (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) × its natural enemies Cotesia flavipes Cameron (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) and Podisus maculiventris Say (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) × botanical compounds with and without synergist is unknown; therefore, it was studied under controlled conditions. The objective of this study was to evaluate the direct mortality of P. maculiventris nymphs and adults and indirect by this predator feeding on S. exigua larvae treated after being exposed to parasitism by C. flavipes. Brassica nigra L. (Brassicales: Brassicaceae) and Curcuma longa L. (Zingiberales: Zingiberaceae) compounds, with and without lead (II) oxide (PbO), were tested as insecticides. The mortality of first and second instars P. maculiventris was high with turmeric essential oil by topical application. The PbO increased the predator mortality in combination with turmeric powder, crude essential oil, and ar-turmerone. This last derivative caused also the highest mortality of P. maculiventris nymphs when ingested through treated S. exigua larvae that were previously subjected to parasitism. Turmeric powder and its derivatives, with and without PbO, should not be used in areas with P. maculiventris due to the high mortality caused to this predator.

Lethal and behavioral effects of synthetic and organic insecticides on Spodoptera exigua and its predator Podisus maculiventris.

BACKGROUND: The beet armyworm, Spodoptera exigua (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), is a key insect pest of edible vegetables around the world and it is resistant to insecticide of different classes. Insecticides that are effective to this pest and selective to predator stinkbugs are required for the integrated management of S. exigua. METHODS: The toxicity of four commercial insecticide formulations azadirachtin + pyrethrin, spinosad, pyrethrin and chlorantraniliprole was tested on the target pest and their side effect were evaluated on the spined soldier bug, Podisus maculiventris (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) through different bioassays. RESULTS: Spinosad and chlorantraniliprole were more toxic to S. exigua than to the predator P. maculiventris but opposite results were obtained for pyrethrin and azadirachtin + pyrethrin in contact toxicity bioassay. Chlorantraniliprole was the most toxic to S. exigua in oral toxicity bioassay, followed by spinosad, pyrethrin and azadirachtin + pyrethrin. Spinosad in oral toxicity bioassay was the most toxic to P. maculiventris, followed by pyrethrin, azadirachtin + pyrethrin and chlorantraniliprole. Spinosad caused irritability to the predator while pyrethrin to the pest. The insecticide repellency was not observed over the tested insect species. The synthetic insecticide chlorantraniliprole was less toxic than the natural pyrethrin, azadirachtin + pyrethrin and spinosad to the predator. CONCLUSIONS: This work provides useful information on the combination of commercial insecticides with the predator P. maculiventris to controlling S. exigua in integrated pest management (IPM) programs.

Diolcogaster flammeus sp. nov. from Brazil, a new Microgastrinae wasp (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) of importance in biological control

ABSTRACT A new species of Diolcogaster (Ashmead, 1900) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) is described and illustrated. Additionally, a key to all New World species formally published of the xanthaspis species-group (to which the new species belongs) is provided. The solitary larval parasitoid Diolcogaster flammeus sp. nov. was collected in Viçosa, Minas Gerais State, Brazil. This natural enemy was reared from caterpillars of Agaraea minuta (Schaus, 1892) (Lepidoptera: Erebidae) feeding on plants of spiked spiralflag ginger, Costus spicatus (Jacq.) Sw. and ginger spiral, Costus spiralis (Jacq.) Roscoe var. spiralis (Costaceae). The fauna of the xanthaspis group in the New World included just three published species prior to this publication. Diolcogaster flammeus sp. nov. is the only yellow-orange species of the xanthaspis group recorded in the New World thus far.

Side-effects of pesticides on the generalist endoparasitoid Palmistichus elaeisis (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae).

New plant protection strategies focus on minimizing chemical pesticide use and increasing their compatibility with biological control agents. The objective was to evaluate the side-effects of glyphosate, diflubenzuron, malathion, tebuconazole and triflumuron (at 720, 45, 400, 150 and 20 g ai ha-1, respectively), pesticides authorized for soybean crops in Brazil, on the parasitoid Palmistichus elaeisis (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) reared on Anticarsia gemmatalis (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). The emergence and female numbers produced per P. elaeisis female were higher in A. gemmatalis pupae from caterpillars fed an artificial diet treated with glyphosate. However, emergence was lower than 50% when the caterpillars were fed on soybean leaves treated with glyphosate offered ad libitum (3-5 times). Palmistichus elaeisis died before parasiting A. gemmatalis pupae treated with malathion. Diflubenzuron reduced the P. elaesis sex ratio in the second generation. Tebuconazole and triflumuron did not cause side-effects on this parasitoid. A continuous exposure to glyphosate by the host may lead to side-effects on P. elaeisis emergence, but its moderate use is acceptable for this parasitoid. Diflubenzuron had severe transgenerational side-effects. Tebuconazole fungicide and triflumuron insecticide are compatible with P. elaeisis in sustainable integrated pest management (IPM) programs, while malathion can not be included in them.

Comparative morphology of the odoriferous system in three predatory stink bugs (Heteroptera: Asopinae).

The metathoracic scent system in Heteroptera produces and releases defensive volatile compounds. The odor produced by predatory stink bugs differs from phytophagous bugs, suggesting a variation between the structure and function of the metathoracic scent system. The anatomy and ultrastructure of the external thoracic efferent system, scent gland, and reservoir in the stink bug predators Brontocoris tabidus, Podisus nigrispinus, and Supputius cincticeps (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae: Asopinae) were studied. External thoracic efferent systems of B. tabidus, P. nigrispinus, and S. cincticeps have anatomical differences in ostiole, peritreme, and evaporatorium. Scent glands have a secretory portion and a reservoir. The reservoir has irregular projections, and in B. tabidus, it is enlarged and heart shaped, whereas in P. nigrispinus and S. cincticeps it is flattened and semicircular. The secretory tissue of the scent gland has well-developed globular secretory cells that produce odorous compounds, and the reservoir has a single layer of cubical cells lined by a cuticular intima. Secretory cells are type III with an intracellular end apparatus, well-developed nucleus with decondensed chromatin, and cytoplasm rich in mitochondria, lysosomes, granules, and smooth endoplasmic reticulum. These findings suggest that there are differences in physiological function of the odoriferous system and the volatile compounds produced by the secretory cells, which may indicate variation in defensive behavior of these species.

Rice-straw mulch reduces the green peach aphid, Myzus persicae (Hemiptera: Aphididae) populations on kale, Brassica oleracea var. acephala (Brassicaceae) plants.

Organic mulches, like peel and rice-straw, besides other materials affect the UV and temperature, which cause a reduction in the aphid arrival. The aim was to evaluate the effect of covering the soil with straw on the populations of the green peach aphid, Myzus persicae on the kale, Brassica oleracea var. acephala plants. The first experiment evaluated the direct effect of the rice-straw mulch and the second its indirect effect on aphid immigration, testing the plant characteristics that could lead to the landing preference of this insect. The third experiment evaluated the direct effect of the mulch on the aphid population. In the second and third experiments, four plants, each in a 14 L polyethylene pot with holes at the bottom, were used in areas with and without soil mulching. These pots were changed between areas, after seven days, to evaluate the effects of this change on the arrival of the winged aphids to the plants. Each plant was covered with anti-aphid gauze and inoculated with one winged M. persicae. Winged and apterous adults of this insect were counted per plant after 15 days. The temperature increased in the mulched plots to a maximum of 21-36°C and to 18-32°C in the plots with or without soil covering, respectively. Plant growth reduced the numbers of the winged aphids landing before and after they were moved to the bare soil plots. The nutrient content was similar in plants in both the mulched and no mulched plots. The population growth of M. persicae was higher in the control than in the mulched plots. This was partially due to temperatures close to 30°C in these plots and changes in the plant physiology. The soil mulching with rice-straw decreased the M. persicae landing, increased the plot temperatures and improved the vegetative growth of the kale plants.

Screening of extracts of leaves and stems of Psychotria spp. (Rubiaceae) against Sitophilus zeamais (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) and Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) for maize protection.

Sitophilus zeamais (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) and Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) are important economic pests of corn, Zea mays (Poaceae). Psychotria spp. (Rubiaceae) plants are rich in secondary metabolites that could be toxic against such pests. We have screened extracts from four species of Psychotria abundant in the Cerrado (Savannah-type) biome of Brazil for the toxicity to two insects. We found that extracts from leaves and stems had significant effects on the hatching rate, parameters of caterpillar body (weight and length and width of head capsule), repellency, and mortality of these two pests, although the effects varied according to the Psychotria species and plant source (stem or leaf). Extracts of the stems of Psychotria hoffmannseggiana and of Psychotria capitata were more toxic to S. zeamais and the stems of Psychotria goyazensis to S. frugiperda; therefore, such extracts could have the potential for use in integrated pest management schemes.

Emergence of Palmistichus elaeisis Delvare & Lasalle, 1993 (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) from pupae of Heraclides anchisiades capys (Hübner, [1809]) (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) in the laboratory.

Heraclides anchisiades capys (Hübner, [1809]) (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) is an abundant insect pest on crops of Citrus spp. (Rutaceae) in Brazil and pupae of this defoliator could be used for the mass rearing of parasitoids. The aim of this study was to evaluate the parasitism of Palmistichus elaeisis Delvare & LaSalle, 1993 (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) on H. anchisiades capys pupae in the laboratory. Twenty 1-day-old H. anchisiades capys pupae were individualized in test tubes (14 cm length x 2.2 cm diameter) with a drop of honey as food and with ten mated P. elaeisis females for ten days. The duration of the life cycle (egg to adult), emergence rate, total individuals emerged per pupa, sex ratio, size of the body and longevity of P. elaeisis males and females emerged from H. anchisiades capys pupae were evaluated. The duration of the life cycle of P. elaeisis was 21.15 +/- 0.15 days. Forty percent of H. anchisiades capys pupae showed emergence of parasitoids, with an average of 323 +/- 38 individuals from each one and a sex ratio of 0.95 +/- 0.02. The total number of parasitoids emerged was 2,584 individuals. The size of the body and the head capsule (mm) of female and male P. elaeisis progeny were 1.92 +/- 0.04; 0.52 +/- 0.02 and 1.28 +/- 0.04; 0.40 +/- 0.02, respectively. The average longevity was 23.72 +/- 1.15 days for females and 30.1 +/- 2.42 days for males of P. elaeisis. Heraclides anchisiades capys, abundant on crops of Citrus spp. in Brazil, has potential to be used as a host for mass rearing of P. elaeisis in the laboratory for biological control programs.

Potential of aromatic and medicinal plant extracts from Cerrado biome to control the velvetbean caterpillar Anticarsia gemmatalis / Potencial de extractos de plantas aromáticas y medicinales del bioma Cerrado para controlar la oruga Anticarsia gemmatalis

Anticarsia gemmatalis was treated with aromatic and medicinal plant extracts from Cerrado biome: Acisanthera sp., Adenocalymma nodosum, Bidens sulphurea, Lepidoploa aurea, Dimorphandra mollis, and Salvertia convallariaeodora. Extracts of astilbin from D. mollis or L. aurea were the most toxic to eggs and have reduced the sex ratio of A. gemmatalis pupae. Extracts of B. sulphurea, astilbin from D. mollis or S. convallariaeodora reduced the weight of male pupae and those of astilbin from D. mollis, the weight of female pupae of A. gemmatalis. The viability of the stages from egg to caterpillar was lower with extracts of astilbin from D. mollis or L. aurea; from caterpillar to pupa with Acisanthera sp. or astilbin from D. mollis and from pupa to adult with Acisanthera sp., A. nodosum, B. sulphurea or astilbin from D. mollis. Extracts of astilbin from D. mollis and L. aurea presented greater potential for future studies on toxicity of A. gemmatalis.

Anticarsia gemmatalis fue tratada con extractos de plantas aromáticas y medicinales del bioma Cerrado: Acisanthera sp., Adenocalymma nodosum, Bidens sulphurea, Lepidoploa aurea, Dimorphandra mollis, y Salvertia convallariaeodora. Extractos de astilbin de D. mollis o L. aurea fueron los más tóxicos para los huevos y han reducido la proporción sexual de pupas de A. gemmatalis. Extractos de B. sulphurea, astilbin de D. mollis o S. convallariaeodora redujeron el peso de las pupas macho y el de astilbin de D. mollis, el peso de las pupas hembras de A. gemmatalis. La viabilidad de los estadíos de huevo a oruga fue menor con extractos de astilbin de D. mollis o L. aurea; de oruga a crisálida con Acisanthera sp. o astilbin de D. mollis y de pupa a adulto con Acisanthera sp., A. nodosum, B. sulphurea o astilbin de D. mollis. Extractos de astilbin de D. mollis y L. aurea presentan un mayor potencial para futuros estudios sobre la toxicidad sobre A. gemmatalis.